Capitoline Wolf
Year	Etruscan? 11–12th century? (wolf) late 15th century (twins)
Type	Bronze
Dimensions	75 cm × 114 cm (30 in × 45 in)
Location	Musei Capitolini, Rome, Italy

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The Capitoline Wolf (Italian: Lupa Capitolina) is a bronze sculpture depicting a scene from the legend of the founding of Rome. The sculpture shows a she-wolf suckling the mythical twin founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus. According to the legend, when King Numitor, grandfather of the twins, was overthrown by his brother Amulius in Alba Longa, the usurper ordered them to be cast into the Tiber River. They were rescued by a she-wolf that cared for them until a herdsman, Faustulus, found and raised them.

The age and origin of the Capitoline Wolf are controversial. The statue was long thought to be an Etruscan work of the fifth century BC,^[1] with the twins added in the late 15th century AD, probably by sculptor Antonio Pollaiolo.^[2] However, though radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dating suggested that the wolf portion of the statue may have been cast between 1021 and 1153,^[3] these results are inconsistent, and there is yet no consensus for a revised dating; in a conference about this theme, most academics supported an ancient Etruscan origin, and analysis of the metal suggests that its lead comes from a mining place that is not known to have operated during medieval times.^[4]

The image of the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus is a symbol of Rome since ancient times, and one of the most recognizable icons of ancient mythology.^[5] The sculpture has been housed since 1471 in the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Campidoglio (the ancient Capitoline Hill), Rome, Italy, and many replicas are in various places around the world.

Description[edit]

The sculpture is somewhat larger than life-size, standing 75 cm (30 in) high and 114 cm (45 in) long. The wolf is depicted in a tense, watchful pose, with alert ears and glaring eyes, which are watching for danger. By contrast, the human twins – executed in a completely different style – are oblivious to their surroundings, absorbed by their suckling.^[6]

Attribution and dating[edit]

The she-wolf from the legend of Romulus and Remus was regarded as a symbol of Rome from ancient times. Several ancient sources refer to statues depicting the wolf suckling the twins. Livy reports in his Roman history that a statue was erected at the foot of the Palatine Hill in 295 BC.^[7]Pliny the Elder mentions the presence in the Roman Forum of a statue of a she-wolf that was 'a miracle proclaimed in bronze nearby, as though she had crossed the Comitium while Attus Navius was taking the omens'. Cicero also mentions a statue of the she-wolf as one of a number of sacred objects on the Capitoline that had been inauspiciously struck by lightning in 65 BC: 'it was a gilt statue on the Capitol of a baby being given suck from the udders of a wolf.'^[8] Cicero also mentions the wolf in De Divinatione 1.20 and 2.47.^[9]

The Capitoline Wolf was widely assumed to be the very sculpture described by Cicero, due to the presence of damage to the sculpture's paw, which was believed to correspond to the lightning strike of 65 BC. The 18th-century German art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann attributed the statue to an Etruscan maker in the fifth century BC, based on how the wolf's fur was depicted.^[10] It was first attributed to the Veiian artist Vulca, who decorated the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and then reattributed to an unknown Etruscan artist of around 480–470 BC. Winckelmann correctly identified a Renaissance origin for the twins; they were probably added in 1471 AD or later.^[11]

During the 19th century, a number of researchers questioned Winckelmann's dating of the bronze. August Emil Braun, the secretary of the Archaeological Institute of Rome, proposed in 1854 that the damage to the wolf's paw had been caused by an error during casting. Wilhelm Fröhner, the conservator of the Louvre, stated in 1878 that the style of the statue was attributable to the Carolingian art period rather than the Etruscan, and in 1885, Wilhelm von Bode also stated that he was of the view that the statue was most likely a mediaeval work. These views were largely disregarded, though, and had been forgotten by the 20th century.^[11]

In 2006, Italian art historian Anna Maria Carruba and Archaeologist Adriano La Regina contested the traditional dating of the wolf on the basis of an analysis of the casting technique. Carruba had been given the task of restoring the sculpture in 1997, enabling her to examine how it had been made. She observed that the statue had been cast in a single piece, using a variation of the lost-wax casting technique. This technique was not used in Classical antiquity; ancient Greek and Roman bronzes were typically constructed from multiple pieces, a method that facilitated high-quality castings, with less risk than would be involved in casting the entire sculpture at once. Single-piece casting was, however, widely used in the Middle Ages to mould bronze items that needed a high level of rigidity, such as bells and cannons. Carruba argues, like Braun, that the damage to the wolf's paw had resulted from an error in the moulding process. In addition, La Regina, former superintendent of Rome's archaeological heritage, argues that the sculpture's artistic style is more akin to Carolingian and Romanesque art than that of the ancient world.^[11]

Radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dating were carried out at the University of Salento in February 2007 to resolve the question. The results revealed with an accuracy of 95.4% that the sculpture was crafted between the 11th and 12th centuries AD.

A 2019 radiocarbon study, based on organic residues in the casting cores recovered from the inner part of the statue, 'firmly anchor[s] the statue to the XI-XII centuries CE, in the Middle Ages.'^[12]

However, a recent study by John Osborne at the British School at Rome concluded that the radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dates were totally inconsistent. He pointed out that metal from which the wolf is made is of the Etruscan type using copper from Sardinia and that there is no sign of the adulteration common in mediaeval times, and that on the balance of probabilities, the wolf should be considered to be Etruscan.^[13]^[4]

History of the sculpture[edit]

The sculpture in Musei Capitolini

When the sculpture was first erected is unclear, but a number of mediaeval references mention a 'wolf' standing in the Pope's Lateran Palace. In the 10th-century Chronicon of Benedict of Soracte, the monk chronicler writes of the institution of a supreme court of justice 'in the Lateran Palace, in the place